Effects of Cor and US on Taxol Production of Taxus x Media

Effects of Cor and US on Taxol Production of Taxus x Media SUMMARY OF PROPOSED RESEARCH INCLUDING KEY GOALS For scientifically qualified assessors: Taxol is a natural diterpenoid alkaloid first isolated from the inner bark of pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia (Wani et al., 1971) and widely use in the pharmaceutical industry as the antitumor agents. However, low taxol content, high cost of extraction and the destruction of yew trees spark a major environmental controversy and cause a problem to fulfil its growing demand. The application of plant tissue culture technique has appeared as an eco-friendly method and feasible approach for commercial supply, but the production rate of this secondary metabolite are still very low. Only 10% of taxol secreted in the extracellular medium of T x media suspension cultures (Wickremesinhe and Arteca, 1993). These problems prompted a great effort to discover and identify the alternative means to enhance the mass production of taxol in plant cell cultures. In this study, elicitation using coronatine (Cor) and ultrasound (US) will be used for synthesis and transport of taxol. Cor is a toxin produced by Pseudomonas syringae and can act as a plant growth regulator and stimulates the defence mechanism in plants. Meanwhile, Low-intensity US is a physical or mechanical stimulus that can enhance the cellular transporter activity and trigger the pathway of defence-related secondary metabolites. It is hypothesized that the taxol accumulation in Taxus x media culture is higher than control (unelicited) and single treatment after treated with Cor and low- energy US. The experiment will use two-stage suspension culture and longitudinally young stem as the explant. The effect of these two elicitors on biomass production and taxol production will be analysed. At the end of this study, it is expected that the taxol production and cell growth will show positive result after elicited with Cor and low-energy US. This study will be a significant endeavour in enhance the release of taxol through elicitation approach. For lay readers: Secondary metabolites are chemicals produced by plants and do not have any physiological functions, but use as flavour, food colours, fragrances and pharmaceutical study. Taxus species are one of the medicinal plants that can produce natural anti-cancer agents known as taxol. However, over exploitation of natural sources of taxol from bark, stem, roots and needles put yew trees as an endangered species. Besides, the low yield and slow growth of yew trees limit its potential as a viable source of taxol. Thus, it is important to find alternative method to increase the taxol production in Taxus sp. The production of taxol from Taxus x media can be greatly enhanced through elicitation. Elicitation is a method to stimulate the gene expression of enzymes responsible for the synthesis of secondary metabolites. The substance used in stimulating the production of exuded compound is called elicitor. Elicitor is formed inside or outside of plant cells and imitate as a stress to activate the pla nt defence systems and cause qualitative and quantitative changes in the secondary metabolite content. Two elicitors that will be used in this study are Coronatine (Cor) and low-energy ultrasound (US). Plants use Cor to build defensive compounds and as growth regulators. US, on the other hand can stimulated the cell membrane permeabilization and encourage the release of taxol to culture medium. Plant cell cultures will be used to retrieve the secondary metabolite on demand by maintain the growth of plant cells in aseptic condition with appropriate supply of nutrients. It is expected that the accumulation of taxol treated with elicitors is higher than the untreated culture. This study will provide a good understanding about the effect of elicitors in activate the chemical defence system in plants and directly stimulate the production of taxol. RESEARCH Outcomes / Products What is the proposed outcome of your project: It is expected that all treatments will give significant increase of taxol accumulation when compared with control. Combination between Cor and US exposure will improve the extracellular and cell-associated taxol production. The expected taxol production from the treatment of both Cor and US is 20 to 50% higher than control. Elicitation of Taxus x media using Cor and US also will enhance the cell growth. The use of suspension culture will be one of the reasons that improve the accumulation of taxol and can be a good strategy for the continous production of taxol. Why is it important? Taxol is well known anti-cancer drug derived from natural source of Taxus species. However, direct extraction from yew trees has subjected them as an endangered species. On the other hand, the process of extraction and purification of taxol is also time consuming and not economically feasible. Thus, plant tissue culture is a promising approach to obtain this secondary metabolite. However, one of the main problems in increase the taxol production is instability in the synthesis of secondary metabolite. In order to maximize the yield of taxol, the combination of biotic and abiotic elicitor can be a good strategy. Besides, the elicitation approach is also more economical beneficial compare with other methods such as precursor feeding, phytohormone regulation and biotransformation. US is a simple but effective elicitor while Cor is expected has the similar biological activity as methyl jasmonate (MeJA), the most common elicitor used in stimulate secondary metabolites. The results from th is study can provide a fundamental understanding of the effects of US in combination with Cor on the production of secondary metabolite and plant cell culture. Understanding how Taxus x media cell culture react with these two elicitors can provide a a beneficial in link the growth rate with the production of taxol. DETAILS OF RESEARCH PROJECT Introduction and Background: Taxus species are medicinal plants and members of the Taxaceae family that can produce taxol, a chemotheraphy drug used widely in cancers treatment. FDA approval of taxol in 1992 and a series of success of taxol in clinical test for various cancers led to massive demand for this active substance. The increase of demand was expected since taxol also useful to combact non-canceorus disorders, such as polycystic kidney disease (Woo et al., 1994). However, it is difficult to perform large-scale culture because of the difficulty to gain this active compound from natural source. Three mature, century-old yew trees would produce only 1 g of taxol. It is estimated that about 10 tons of bark or felling of 3000 trees was needed to yield 1 kg of purified taxol to treat 500 cancer patients. Besides, the natural source of taxol from yew trees is only about 0.01% to 0.06% (Sung et al., 2005). All these concerns have prompted extensive efforts in find the method that can increase the mass productio n taxol. Taxus x media is choose for this study since it is good starting materials for the taxol production via biotechnological technique. Besides, the amount of taxol produce by this cultivar is the highest among other Taxus species (Table 1). The elicitation approach has been one of the most promising strategies in improve the mass production of taxol and other secondary metabolites in cell cultures (Roberts ND Shuler, 1997). The idea of using elicitor arise from the defence pathway utilize by plant in deal with environmental stress, pathogenic microorganisms, insects and higher herbivorous predators by stimulate the production of offensive chemicals like secondary metabolites. One of the most commonly studied and effective biotic elicitor is methyl jasmonate (MeJA). However, the report that Cor resemble the biological activity of the jasmonic acid gives an idea that the mode of action between these two compounds could be similar. The chemical structure of Cor is more stable than MeJA because of the rigid cis-orientation in its bi-cyclic skeleton. This lead to the higher levels of induction in the production of secondary metabolites by plant cells treated with Cor when compare with those treated with natural JA. Although Cor stimulated paclitaxel production with less efficiency than MeJA, it resulted in higher paclitaxel excretion to the liquid phases of culture medium. Besides that, there are not many reports about the influence of Cor on the production of secondary metabolite in plant cell suspension culture. Table 1: Content (wt %) of selected taxanes in different species of Taxus plants (Lin Lidong, 2003) The combination of biotic and abiotic elicitor had synergistic effects to taxol production in many reports. Thus, it is expected that the combine use of Cor with a physical stimulus like US might increase the yield of taxol in the Taxus culture. Generally, the abiotic elicitors use in experimental studies is chemical agents, heavy metals and biochemical agents like polysaccharides and organic acid. The use of US to biotechnology is relatively new and not many reports can be found on the effects of US in increase the useful secondary metabolites. This simple and effective elicitor can activate cells or enzymes and induced plant defence metabolism by ultrasonic waves. High intensity US waves can bring detrimental effect to cells, enzymes and other biological materials. Meanwhile, low intensity US waves can change the cellular metabolism, improve the mass transfer of reagents and enhance the release of intracellular products from cultured cells by increase the membrane permeability. The use of US will not disrupt the culture process and allow continuous use of cell’s biosynthetic capacity (Kilby and Hunter, 1990). US deserve an extensive research regarding its effects in plant secondary metabolite due to its wide application in biological field. The combination of Cor and US has great prospect and economic benefits in enhance the taxol production at low cost. Until now, there is no study or information about the effect of Cor and US and their combination on the Taxus species. Work which has led up to the project: The production of taxol using cell cultures were first reported by Christen et al., in 1989. Cell suspension cultures can emit secondary metabolites into growth medium. For instance, the production of resveratrol in the medium was higher than in the cell (Zamboni et al., 2009). Work by Kajani et al., in 2010 on Taxus baccata L cell culture showed that 74.9 % of total taxanes was exuded to growth medium (5. 584 mg/ L). Roberts et al., in 2003 reported that suspension culture of Taxus canadensis secreted more than 90% of the total taxol to the medium after treated with cell wall enzymes. Cell culture of Taxus chinensis emitted 90% of the total paclitaxel in medium with chitosan (Zhang et al., 2007). Komaraiah et al., in 2003 reported that up to 70% of the plumbagin in Plumbago rosea cell culture were released into the medium. Taxol accumulate at high level (1.5 mg/L) in the second phase of growth Previous research by J. Wu and L. Lin in 2003 on the application of US as a physical stimulus and MeJA in increase the mass production of taxol in Taxus chinensis becomes a fundamental reference for this study. Their study showed that the taxol yield was increased about 1.5- to 1.8-fold with 2 minutes US exposure once or twice during a 4 week culture period. Meanwhile, the total taxol after treated with MeJA increase about 5-fold. The percentage of extracellular taxol and cell-associated taxol also showed significant increase. The taxol production from combination between US and MeJA treatment was 20 to 50% higher than each of the treatment used alone. Another research by Wu and Lin in 2002 found that low energy US can play a role as abiotic elicitor to trigger the plant defence responses and induce the production of plant metabolite in cell cultures. Apart from that, US also can increase the cell membrane permeabilization to increase the efficiency of intracellular product release. In their previous study, they found that the combination of US stimulation and in situ solvent extraction in a Lithospermum erythrorhizan cell culture led to 2 to 3-fold increases in the yield of shikonin. Tamogami and Kodama reported in 2000 that Accumulation of flavonoid phytoalexins in rice occurred when treated with Cor. This shown that the effect of Cor on flavonoid production was greater than that of JA or its precursor, 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA). Cor also gave positive result in the alkaloid production in Eschscholzia californica cell cultures (Haider et al., 2000). The previous work by also showed the greater increase in the accumulation of glyceollins, the phytoalexins of soybean (Glycine max. L.), in soybean cell suspension cultures after treated with Cor. Besides, the effect of Cor in induced the phytoalexin productin was greatly better when compared with JA and MeJA. (Fliegmann et al., 2003; Lauchli et al, 2002). Aims of the project: To study the biological and synergistic effects of Cor and US on the taxol production of Taxus x media cell culture. (d) Experimental design and methods to be used in investigating this problem: Cell culture establishment Approximately 1.0 cm long section of longitudinal young stem of Taxus x media will be wash with distilled water and soak in 70% (v/v) ethanol for 30 to 60 seconds. After that, the stem will be surface sterilized by immersion in 1.5% sodium hypochlorite with a few drops of Tween 20 for 20 to 30 minutes. After sterilization, the explants will be rinsed 3 times with sterile distilled water. Next, the longitudinally halved stem sections will be placed with the inner cut surface in contact with the solid Gamborg’s B5 media to induce calli. The media supplemented/ fortified with 3.0% sucrose (w/v), 0.8% agar (w/v), 1 mg/L 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 0.5 mg/L 6-Benzyladenine (BA), at pH 5.5. All of the cultures will be placed in darkness at 25oC for 25 days. To obtain a homogenous callus, several subcultures of calli will be done every 3 weeks. The snow, friable and massive callus will be used as the inoculums for cell suspension culture. Cor treatment The same media without agar will be used for cell suspension culture. About 10 g of fresh weight of callus will be used as the inoculums and inoculated into 300 mL conical flasks containing 100 mL liquid growth B5 medium and placed on orbital shakers (120 rpm) at 25oC in darkness. 1 uM Cor will be added to the shake-flask culture on day 7 post inoculation since the Taxus cell culture is expected to be in the middle of a rapid growth phase, which is usually a favourable time for elicitor treatment in most plant cell cultures. 3) US treatment An ultrasonic cleaning bath will be used to sonicate the cells in Erlenmeyer flasks from the shake-flask culture (Lin et al., 2001). The bath will had a fixed frequency of 38.5 KHz and variable power levels. The bath temperature wwill be maintained at 25 ±0.5oC. The culture will be sonicated at level 2 US power (corresponding to 13.7 mW/ cm3 in the culture) once (on day 5, 9, or 16) or twice (day 5 and day 9) for 2 min each time (total US energy of each exposure = power x period = 1.64 J/cm3). The US power and exposure period will be selected based on the study by Lin et al., (2001) and Lin and Wu in 2002. Determination of cell density The cells in the shake-flasks will be separated from the medium by filtration through a Whatman filter paper under vacuum. The wet cell mass will be rinsed thoroughly with deionized water and then dried at 50oC in an oven to constant weight. Taxol extraction and determination The taxol content in powdered dried cell and medium in the culture flasks will be extracted by methods previously described by Wu and Lin (2003). The dried cells will pulverized and suspended in 10 mL methanol, filtered and air-dried. After that, the cells will be re-dissolved in dichloromethane: water (1:1, v/v) followed by centrifugation at 5000 rpm. Dichloromethane phase will be collected, air-dried and re-dissolved in 100  µL methanol (HPLC grade) and filtered passing through a 0.45  µm syringe filter, before being injected to HPLC. The taxol content in the extract solution will be quantified by HPLC system, equipped with a C-18 column of 25 x 4.6 mm dimension. Taxol will be eluted with a linear gradient of acetonitrile and water (45: 55, v/v)/ at a flow rate of 1 mL/min with UV detection at 227 nm. Identification of taxol will be accomplished by comparison of retention times with authentic standard. Statistical analysis The results will be analyzed statistically by one-way ANOVA analysis and Duncan multiple range tests. The data will be presented as the mean value  ± standard deviation (SD) of three independent experiments.

The Importance of Civil Disobedience

Gandhi, Martin Luther King Junior, Rosa Parks, Cesar Chavez. Each of these people were leaders and role models to different civil rights movements. However, they all share similar views on how society should react to oppression. The motive behind each and every protest in American History is civil disobedience, an idea thought up by Thoreau while he spent the night in jail, due to tax evasion. He believed â€Å"that government is best which governs least. †1 His revolutionary idea weaved its way into the fabric of American life. As free people, we see it as our right to protest any laws we see unjust. In a society which controls, the need to rebel will always be present. This theme is abundant throughout the many different time periods in The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail. Early American newspapers were often opinion based. These articles slowly became less and less fond of the King and his laws. For example, the Pennsylvania Gazette contains many articles pertaining to the injustice of the stamp act. This particular paper contains a segment from a meeting with the Sons of Liberty. The first point states, â€Å"we will cheerfully, to the utmost of our power, defend all of our just rights and privileges, as they have always been heretofore allowed us†2. The Sons of Liberty make it clear to the public that no injustices will go unnoticed. The paper continues, â€Å"that we will oppose all attempts to deprive us of our rights and privileges as Englishmen. And therefore will at all events oppose the operation of that defeatable thing called the Stamp Act, in this colony†3 This article is one of the first to take a stand against oppression. The Sons of Liberty published many columns similar to this one in papers throughout the colonies. Although these articles may seem aggressive the motive is still passive. â€Å"That we will, in all cases, behave ourselves peaceably as far as our influence extends, weill preserve the public peace†¦ †4 They are recognized as pioneers in the field of civil disobedience. Thoreau can be thought of as the father of civil disobedience, turning what was once a bloodbath for power into a peaceful yet effective plan for change. In all of his writing it is clear that Thoreau is not fond of American government, or any other government. Henry Thoreau once said, â€Å"any fool can make a rule, and any fool will mind it†5. This quote summarizes how Thoreau felt about politics. It is frustrating how one fool can pass a law which effects everybody, however what Henry could not stand, is how the majority of people would stand by and let it happen. Anyone who has studied Thoreau would know that his biggest pet peeves are the government and conformity. He believed that â€Å"disobedience is the true foundation of liberty. The obedient must be slaves†6. As Americans, we deserve the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. The dictionary definition of liberty is â€Å"freedom from arbitrary or despotic government or control. †7 This means that we deserve the right to rebel against government control. Maybe Thoreau was not as revolutionary as some thought, he was simply quoting the Constitution of the United States of America. Civil disobedience was catching on in the colonies as taxes got higher. However the phenomenon was not as popular in Britain. â€Å"It has been reported to the King that several writings†¦ nder the title of Revolutions, or Protests or different bodies and communities, cary with them an air of disobedience and revolt. These writings are in their form-illegal-in the effect that they are intended to produce-fallacious superiority over the royal authority†8. These letters were a response to articles such as the one put forth by the Sons of Liberty. The King would send ultimatum after ultimatum, attempting to stop civil disobedience from becoming mainstream. â€Å"The King being in his council, orders that the deliberations and protests of his courts and other assemblies made since the publication of his laws of the 8th of May†¦ articularly officers of the courts, or other judges, to afflict just penalties†¦ †9 Yet his threats did not stop the rebellion from coming. Like previously stated, in a society which controls, the need to rebel will always be present. Through the hard work of Henry Thoreau, the Sons of Liberty, and all those who opposed British rule, America is now a separate and free country. However as long as a government controls the way people live there will always be a need to rebel. Society’s right to free speech is essential in the preservation of freedom. Hopefully citizens will always see the positive outcomes of peaceful rebellion, it has and continues to shape the way our country works. The American society would not be what it is today without people crossing the line in order to show better ideas that will benefit the future that we live in today. Martin Luther King proved this when he crossed the line and protested in order to eliminate segregation. Now Americans can live freely together, in a society that rebelled, and is now better off than it ever has been before.

Self-concept: Meaning of Life and Ideal Self

â€Å"Self-Concept† written by Barry Joel Desaine (March 2010) Email: [email  protected] com SELF-CONCEPT Sensing that he is a distinct and separate existence from others through time and space, a man becomes aware of his existential self from infancy. As he matures he also becomes aware of his categorical self through the realization that he has characteristics or attributes that distinguishes him from other objects in his environment. These two aspects – the existential self and the categorical self – constitute the initial ways in which an individual begins the self-perception process that leads to his self-concept (Lewis and Brooks-Gunn, 1979). However, because the idea of self-concept is utilized in many disciplines including psychology, philosophy, sociology, nursing, biology and anthropology, there is no consensus as to how to define â€Å"self-concept† using terms of specificity. As illustrative of this, the concept of self-identity is referred by theorists using a diversity of terms such as: the authentic self; the cohesive self; the core self; the saturated self; and the possible selves. Additionally, in describing the components of self-concept, the influential humanistic psychologist, Carl Rogers, used global terms such as: self-image; self-esteem; and the ideal self, while educational psychologist Gary D. Phye and other theorists used more specific terms such as: the physical component; the social component; the academic or intellectual component; etc. Suffice it to say, most of the research literature suggests that self-concept may be generally defined as the sum total of what an individual thinks or perceives about himself. Using this general definition as a foundation this essay proposes to examine the components of a man’s self-concept in terms of his: personhood; place in society; perfection; and purpose. Personhood – Who am I? Who am I? This is the most fundamental question which an individual can ask about himself and in endeavoring to determine an answer, whether conscientiously or unconscientiously, his self-image is created. A man’s conscientiousness bears witness that he is more than just a chemical composition of matter – more than mere physical existence. He is aware that he is made up of both material and immaterial constituencies and, as a result, his self-image is also comprised of factors of both. These factors include physical, moral, social, emotional and intellectual traits. Firstly, a person’s self-image includes a mental picture of his physical appearance or what is termed body image. It is made up of his perception of his body, both internally and externally. He may think of himself as being too skinny, having beautiful eyes, a nice face, a nose that is too big or any combination of approval or disapproval of a vast variety of physical attributes and abilities. Inherent in this is also the feelings and attitudes he has about his body. Body image is affected by a number of factors including: normal developmental growth; one’s perception of what others think of his body; and cultural and social attitudes and values. For example: A child’s body image is very different from that of an adolescent teen. Similarly, the wife of an abusive husband who speaks ill of her body can develop a poor body image. Additionally, in some cultures a fat person is considered to be a healthy person so that a skinny person in that culture may tend to have a poorer body image based on societal values. Secondly, a person’s self-image also includes his moral traits such as his core values and beliefs. He may view himself as being honest and upright or he may be confident of his voracity and godliness. On the other hand, he may even think that he is wicked and vile or generally of an evil disposition. As with his physical traits his perception of his morality is a part of his self-image and is not an inevitably accurate reflection of his personhood. In a similar manner, a person’s self-image includes perceptions of his social, emotional and intellectual traits. From a social perspective he may see himself as being a good father, loving husband and competent worker. Emotionally, he may think he has a sanguine personality with a measured temperament. Finally, from an intellectual perspective he may think he is very smart, or of average intellect, or may lack confidence in his academic abilities. In summary, a person’s self-image helps him understand his personhood and helps him to define who he is in his own eyes. It is a major component of his self-concept. Place in Society – How do I fit in? How do I fit into society? This is another question that is internalized by an individual, whether conscientiously or not. It leads to the development of his self-esteem. Self-esteem is very important as it affects how we think, act and relate to other people. It may be defined as having a favourable perception of oneself and may be qualitatively described according to the degree of favorability. High self-esteem is a good opinion of oneself whereas low self-esteem is its antithesis. In finding his place in society an individual would generally focus on: his relationship with others; his value to them; the role models who influence him; and his ability to influence others. These domains all constitute the conditions for his self-esteem development which is a major component of self-image (Rogers, 1979). Although a person’s self-concept starts with understanding his personhood, this existential-anthropological view of the individualistic self may give way to his acceptance that he is an integral part of a larger society. He learns how to define the self by comparing himself with others around him (Festinger, 1954). Within this framework, he recognizes the importance of various associations or relationships including family relations, career relations, community relations, and other relations. This â€Å"connectiveness† to the society may lead to a more systemic view of the self as the individual considers his role in its holistic development. Inherent in this is his understanding of his value to the society and his ability to influence others towards its development. The degree to which he is able to succeed in these ventures highly impacts his level of self-esteem. Consistent put-downs, discounting, threat, loneliness, powerlessness, frustration, and intolerance are the seeds of low self-esteem that leads to a harvest of these negative characteristics. On the other hand, developing high self-esteem requires: encouragement; acceptance of oneself and others; perceptiveness; an appreciation of life; reassurance; and faith in oneself and others; and ultimately trust in God. All of these factors are based on interpersonal relationships. Perfection – Who do I want to be? Am I the person I want to be? This is another question that is internalized by an individual in the development of his self-concept. A person’s self-image does not always match the image of what he would like to be or what is termed his â€Å"ideal self† (Rogers, 1979) nor what he thinks he should be or what is termed his â€Å"ought-to-be self†. This sometimes affects the degree to which he values himself as there is a very close relationship between self-image and self-esteem. The ideal self and the ought-to-be self are sometimes collectively referred to as the â€Å"possible selves† (Markus & Nurius, 1986). These are generally not consistent with the actual life experiences of a person. Psychologists refer to a large difference between self-image and the idea self as â€Å"incongruence† while a relatively small difference is called â€Å"congruence. † All individuals experience a certain degree of incongruence. Carl Rogers believed that the greater the degree of incongruence the more difficult it is for a person to arrive at self-actualization. As a result, the individual always strives to make changes in order to come as close as possible to his ideal self or ought-to-be self. Social comparison theorists have a different view in regards to man’s perfection. They contend that many individuals do not have an image of perfection or an ideal self but instead they compare themselves to â€Å"similar others† to validate their own attitudes and values (Jetten, Spears, and Manstead, 1996). However, the general idea is the same i. e. comparison of oneself to a perfect other, whether the ideal self, ought self or similar others, is another component of self-concept. Purpose – Why am I here? Why am I here? Since the meaning of life is an issue that is debated philosophically, scientifically and theologically there are various answers to this question. However, despite the diversity of answers the question is of vital importance since the answer determines how one sees the world and how one sees the world also determines how he sees himself. One’s religious belief about the meaning of life is a powerful influence on his self-concept (Blaine, Trivedi & Eshleman, 1998). Additionally, religion may be an underlying method for organizing self-concept principles since it encompasses all facets of life. A major contribution of religion to self-concept development is its role in affecting one’s self-esteem. Research has shown that students who abandon traditional religious practice in order to become involved in the occult were much more likely to have: low self-esteem; negative feelings about school; poor self-concept; a higher tolerance for deviance; negative feelings about the future; and little desire to be a good person (Tenant-Clark, C. M. , Fritz, J. J. , & Beauvais, F. , 1989). In contrast, students who are affiliated with a traditional religious persuasion are less likely to be involved in delinquent behaviour (Rhodes & Reiss, 1970). Additionally, the question of the purpose of life is significant in determining an individual’s self-value. For example, atheism postulates that since there is no god there is no intrinsic value to life: Life is as meaningful as you want to make it (Dawkins, 2006). The question of purpose is pointless and one is worth as much as he thinks he is. In contrast, theism postulates that life comes from God and therefore has an intrinsic value that is determined by Him: Life is meaningful because God created you for His purpose. Self-value is not determined by what people think but on knowing that God has a purpose for everyone. Ultimately, one’s self-concept is influenced by his understanding of the purpose for his life. In summary, self-concept is the view one has of himself and is determined by his experiences and the value placed on them. The components of one’s self-concept include his: personhood; place in society; view of perfection and his view of his life’s purpose.

Five Billion Years of Solitude The Search for Life Among...

When I sat back and thought about the last time I genuinely enjoyed an educational book, I realized that it has been a very long time. Five Billion Years of Solitude: The Search for Life Among the Stars by Lee Billings is the one book that I have really enjoyed in a while. This book reads like a novel, but if full of facts and interesting information. Billings wrote this book in order to explain his life long love and interest in figuring out what else was out there. Whether it is aliens, other worlds, or life outside of our planet, Billings has been working with numerous people over the years to discover these things. Billings refers to the Earth’s first five billion years as being in solitude because to our knowledge, we are alone in this universe. This book details the hopes and search to make sure that our next five billion years is not as solitary. Five Billion Years of Solitude: The Search for Life Among the Stars immediately grabs its audience by suggesting the prospect of discovering life on other planets. Due to the topics nature being the premise of millions of books, television shows and movies, the possibility of other worlds being out there is very intriguing. The main goal of Five Billion Years of Solitude: The Search for Life Among the Stars by Lee Billings is to explain the quest for more information about â€Å"exoplanets† and the handful of people who devote their lives to finding them. An exoplanet is a planet outside of our Solar System. In Five BillionShow MoreRelatedLibrary Management204752 Words   |  820 Pages9. Highland Park Public Library Strategic Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 6.1. Ten Reasons for Marketing Library and Information Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.1. The Life Cycle of Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.2. Organization Chart Showing Authority Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.3. Line and Staff Organizational Units . . . . . . . . . Figure 7.4. Organization